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The Classic of Mountains and Seas

Journey through an ancient Chinese text filled with extraordinary creatures, deities, distant lands, and strange landscapes—the inspiration for Taiji: Mountains & Seas.

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THE CLASSIC OF MOUNTAINS AND SEAS

山海經Reading room

CHAPTER 01 · 43 passages

The Southern Mountains

南山經

Text

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Range 1

001

English

The first of the southern mountain ranges is the Què [䧿] Mountains. At its head stands Mount Zhāoyáo [招搖], overlooking the Xī [西] Sea, rich in cassia trees, metals, and jade. There grows a plant resembling garlic chives, bearing green blossoms. Its name is Zhù Yú [祝餘]; whoever eats it knows no hunger. There also grows a tree resembling paper mulberry, with black grain, whose blossoms shine in all four directions. Its name is Mí Gǔ [迷穀]; whoever wears it does not lose their way. There dwells a beast resembling a yù [禺], but with white ears. It moves close to the ground and runs upright like a person. Its name is Xīng Xīng [狌狌]; whoever eats it becomes a swift runner. The Lìjǐ [麗𪊨] River rises here and flows westward into the sea. Its waters abound in Yù Pèi [育沛]; whoever wears it is spared abdominal ailments.

Translator’s note

yù [禺]: Traditionally understood as a monkey-like animal. Guō Pú describes it as resembling a macaque, but larger, with red eyes and a long tail; its precise identification is uncertain. Yù Pèi [育沛]: An unidentified substance or object in the river; the text does not describe its form.

002

English

A further 300 li east stands Mount Tángtíng [堂庭], with many Yǎn [棪] trees, Bái Yuán, rock crystals, and much gold.

Translator’s note

Yǎn [棪]: Guō Pú describes a tree with edible reddish fruit resembling a small apple; its precise botanical identity is uncertain.

003

English

A further 380 li east stands Mount Yuányì [猨翼]. Within it are many Guài Shòu, and in its waters many Guài Yú. There is much white jade, and there are many Fù Huǐ, Guài Shé, and strange trees. The mountain cannot be climbed.

Translator’s note

腹虫: The received wording is literally “belly-creatures”; it is conventionally understood here as a name or variant for venomous Shé. This identification is interpretive.

004

English

A further 370 li east stands Mount Niǔyáng [杻陽]. Its southern slope has much red metal, its northern slope much white metal. There is a beast like a horse, with a white head, tiger markings, and a red tail. Its voice resembles singing; its name is Lù Shǔ [鹿蜀]. Wearing it brings prosperity to one's descendants. The Guài [怪] River rises here and flows east into the Xiànyì [憲翼] River. In it are many dark Guī, with turtle bodies, bird heads, and viper tails. They are called Xuán Guī [旋龜]; their voices resemble splitting wood. Wearing one prevents deafness, and it can treat calluses.

Translator’s note

Red metal and white metal: Ancient material terms, generally understood as copper and silver respectively, rather than modern metal grades. “Wearing” the beast is explained by Guō Pú as wearing its hide or tail. The treatment at the end refers to hardened skin on the feet.

005

English

A further 300 li east stands Mount Dì [柢], with plentiful water but no plants or trees. There is a fish like an ox that dwells on the hills. It has a snake's tail and wings beneath its flanks; its voice resembles a Liúniú [留牛]. Its name is Lù [鯥]. In winter it dies, and in summer it lives again. Whoever eats it is spared swelling disease.

Translator’s note

Liúniú [留牛]: Traditionally associated with a yak or another long-haired bovine; the exact identification is uncertain. Guō Pú interprets the fish's winter death as dormancy, but the translation retains the original statement.

006

English

A further 400 li east stands Mount Chányuán [亶爰], with plentiful water but no plants or trees; it cannot be climbed. There is a beast like a wildcat, but with a mane. Its name is Lèi [類]; it is both female and male. Whoever eats it feels no jealousy.

007

English

A further 300 li east stands Mount Jī [基]. Its southern slope has much jade, its northern slope many strange trees. There is a beast like a goat, with nine tails and four ears, and eyes upon its back. Its name is Bó Yí [猼訑]; whoever wears it knows no fear. There is a bird like a chicken, with three heads, six eyes, six legs, and three wings. Its name is Cháng Fū [𪁺𩿧]; whoever eats it does not sleep.

008

English

A further 300 li east stands Mount Qīngqiū [青丘]. Its southern slope has much jade, its northern slope much Qīngwò [青雘]. There is a beast like a fox, with nine tails and a voice like an infant's. It eats people; whoever eats it is unharmed by venomous sorcery. There is a bird like a dove, whose voice resembles scolding. Its name is Guàn Guàn [灌灌]; whoever wears it is not bewildered. The Yīng [英] River rises here and flows south into Jíyì [即翼] Marsh. Within it are many Chì Rú [赤鱬], fish with human faces and voices like mandarin ducks. Whoever eats them is spared scabies.

Translator’s note

Qīngwò [青雘]: A dark blue-green mineral or pigment; its exact material identity is uncertain. 蠱: A term encompassing harmful poison and sorcery, without an exact modern equivalent.

009

English

A further 350 li east stands Mount Jīwěi [箕尾]. Its tail extends into the eastern sea, and it has much sand and stone. The Fāng [汸] River rises here and flows south into the Yù [淯] River, with much white jade in its waters.

010

English

The first range of the Què [䧿] Mountains, from Mount Zhāoyáo [招搖] to Mount Jīwěi [箕尾], comprises ten mountains and extends 2,950 li. Their gods all have bird bodies and dragon heads. Their rites require a furred offering and the burial of a Zhāng [璋] jade tablet; the sacrificial grain is rice. A Bì [璧] disk is also offered, and white cogon grass serves as a mat for the rice.

Translator’s note

The ritual wording is compressed and its punctuation uncertain. The particular animal is not specified. 璋 is an elongated ritual jade tablet; 璧 is a flat jade disk with a central hole. The mountain count is retained as given.

Range 2

011

English

The second southern range begins at Mount Jǔ [柜]. To the west it overlooks Liúhuáng [流黃], to the north Zhūpí [諸毗], and to the east Chángyòu [長右]. The Yīng [英] River rises here and flows southwest into the Chì [赤] River; its waters contain much white jade and Cinnabar. There is a beast like a piglet, but with spurs, whose voice is like a barking dog. Its name is Lí Lì [貍力]; where it appears, the district undertakes many earthworks. There is a bird like an owl, but with human hands, whose voice resembles Bì [痺]. Its name is Zhū [鴸], and its cry gives its name. Where it appears, many men of standing are exiled from the district.

Translator’s note

Guō Pú identifies the three places in the opening as mountains and explains the bird's hands as its feet. He leaves 痺, the sound used for comparison, unexplained. The source repeats 放 in the final clause; the translation treats it as a duplication.

012

English

450 li southeast stands Mount Chángyòu [長右], without plants or trees, but with much water. There is a beast like a yù [禺], with four ears. Its name is Cháng Yòu [長右], and its voice resembles chanting. When it appears, the surrounding districts suffer great floods.

Translator’s note

yù [禺]: A monkey-like animal, described by Guō Pú as larger than a macaque, with red eyes and a long tail. This is a traditional identification, not a secure species identification.

013

English

A further 340 li east stands Mount Yáoguāng [堯光]. Its southern slope has much jade, its northern slope much metal. There is a beast shaped like a person, but with pig bristles. It lives in caves and lies dormant in winter. Its name is Wěi Huái [猾褢]; its voice resembles chopping wood. When it appears, the district is subjected to heavy compulsory labour.

014

English

A further 350 li east stands Mount Yǔ [羽]. There is much water at its foot and much rain above. It has no plants or trees, but many Fù.

015

English

A further 370 li east stands Mount Qúfù [瞿父], without plants or trees, but rich in metals and jade.

016

English

A further 400 li east stands Mount Gōuyú [句餘], without plants or trees, but rich in metals and jade.

017

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Fúyù [浮玉]. To the north one sees Jùqū [具區], and to the east Zhūpí [諸毗]. There is a beast like a Hǔ, but with an ox's tail and a voice like a barking dog. Its name is Zhì [彘]; it eats people. The Tiáo [苕] River rises on the northern slope and flows north into Jùqū [具區], with many Jì [鮆] fish in its waters.

Translator’s note

Jì [鮆]: Traditionally associated with a slender, long-bodied fish, often identified with the anchovy group; an exact modern species is not assumed here.

018

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Chéng [成], square in form and rising in three terraces. Above are plentiful metals and jade, below much Qīngwò [青雘]. The Zhuó [𨴯] River rises here and flows south into the Hūsháo [虖勺] River; its waters contain much gold.

Translator’s note

Qīngwò [青雘]: An ancient name for a blue-green mineral or pigment.

019

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Kuàijī [會稽], square in form. Above are plentiful metals and jade, below many Fū [砆] stones. The Sháo [勺] River rises here and flows south into the Jú [湨] River.

Translator’s note

Fū [砆]: A stone traditionally described as resembling jade, without a secure identification as a modern mineral.

020

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Yí [夷], without plants or trees, but with much sand and stone. The Jú [湨] River rises here and flows south into Liètú [列塗].

021

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Púgōu [僕勾]. Above are plentiful metals and jade, below many plants and trees. There are no birds, beasts, or water.

022

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Xiányīn [咸陰], without plants, trees, or water.

023

English

A further 400 li east stands Mount Xún [洵]. Its southern slope has much metal, its northern slope much jade. There is a beast like a goat, but without a mouth; it cannot be killed. Its name is Huán [䍺]. The Xún [洵] River rises here and flows south into È [閼] Marsh, whose waters contain many Cí Luǒ [芘蠃].

Translator’s note

Cí Luǒ [芘蠃]: An old creature-name traditionally associated with a kind of snail or shellfish; its precise identity is uncertain.

024

English

A further 400 li east stands Mount Hūsháo [虖勺]. Above grow many catalpas and nanmu trees, below many chaste trees and wolfberries. The Pāng [滂] River rises here and flows east into the sea.

025

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Qūwú [區吳], without plants or trees, but with much sand and stone. The Lù [鹿] River rises here and flows south into the Pāng [滂] River.

026

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Lùwú [鹿吳]. There are no plants or trees above, but much metal and stone. The Zégèng [澤更] River rises here and flows south into the Pāng [滂] River. In its waters is a beast called Gǔ Diāo [蠱雕], like an eagle but horned, with a voice like an infant's. It eats people.

027

English

500 li east stands Mount Qīwú [漆吳], without plants or trees, with many Bó [博] stones but no jade. It stands in the eastern sea. Looking toward Mount Qiū [丘], one sees its light emerge and withdraw; this is where the sun rests.

Translator’s note

Bó [博] stone: An uncertain stone-name. The passage's description of the mountain and light is retained without identifying a modern location.

028

English

The second southern range, from Mount Jǔ [柜] to Mount Qīwú [漆吳], comprises seventeen mountains and extends 7,200 li. Their gods all have dragon bodies and bird heads. Their rites require a furred offering and the burial of a jade disk; the sacrificial grain is rice.

Translator’s note

The kind of animal meant by the furred offering is not stated in the received text.

Range 3

029

English

The third southern range begins at Mount Tiānyú [天虞]. There is much water at its foot, and it cannot be climbed.

030

English

500 li east stands Mount Dǎoguò [禱過]. Above are plentiful metals and jade, below many Xī, Sì [兕], and Xiàng. There is a bird like a Jiāo [鵁], but with a white head, three legs, and a human face. Its name is Qú Rú [瞿如], and it cries its own name. The Yín [泿] River rises here and flows south into the sea. In it lives the Hǔ Jiāo [虎蛟], with a fish's body and a snake's tail, whose voice resembles a mandarin duck's. Eating it prevents swelling and can cure haemorrhoids.

Translator’s note

Jiāo [鵁]: Guō Pú describes a waterbird like a wild duck, but smaller, with its feet set near the tail. Sì [兕]: Traditionally a large, one-horned, ox-like animal, often associated with a rhinoceros; the ancient descriptions do not securely establish a modern species.

031

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Dānxué [丹穴], rich in metals and jade. The Dān [丹] River rises here and flows south into the Bó [渤] Sea. There is a bird like a chicken, patterned in five colours, called Fèng Huáng [鳳皇]. The markings on its head form “virtue”; those on its wings, “righteousness”; those on its back, “ritual propriety”; those on its breast, “benevolence”; and those on its belly, “trustworthiness.” It eats and drinks of itself, and sings and dances of itself. When it appears, all beneath heaven is at peace.

Translator’s note

The markings are given as the Chinese characters 德, 義, 禮, 仁, and 信. Fèng Huáng [鳳皇] is the Chinese mythic bird commonly called the phoenix in English; its distinctive name is retained here.

032

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Fāshuǎng [發爽], without plants or trees, but with much water and many Bái Yuán. The Fàn [汎] River rises here and flows south into the Bó [渤] Sea.

033

English

A further 400 li east one reaches the end of Mount Máo [旄]. South of it is a valley called Yù Yí [育遺], with many strange birds. The gentle southern wind issues from here.

034

English

A further 400 li east one reaches the beginning of Mount Fēi [非]. Above are plentiful metals and jade, but no water; below are many Fù.

035

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Yángjiā [陽夾], without plants or trees, but with much water.

036

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Guànxiāng [灌湘]. Above are many trees but no grass, and many strange birds but no beasts.

037

English

A further 500 li east stands Mount Jī [雞]. Above is much metal, below much red mineral pigment. The Hēi [黑] River rises here and flows south into the sea. In it lives the Zhuān Yú [鱄], like a crucian carp, but with pig bristles and a voice like a piglet's. When it appears, a great drought falls upon all beneath heaven.

Translator’s note

The source reads 黑水山焉, with 山 where the usual formula has 出, “rises”; the translation follows the evident river formula. 丹雘 is an ancient red pigment or mineral, not a precisely identified modern compound.

038

English

A further 400 li east stands Mount Lìngqiū [令丘], without plants or trees, but with much fire. South of it is Zhōng [中] Valley, from which the eastern wind issues. There is a bird like an Xiāo, with a human face, four eyes, and ears. Its name is Yóng [顒], and it cries its own name. When it appears, a great drought falls upon all beneath heaven.

039

English

A further 370 li east stands Mount Lúnzhě [侖者]. Above are plentiful metals and jade, below much Qīngwò [青雘]. There is a tree like a paper mulberry, but with red grain and sap like lacquer. Its taste is like malt sugar; whoever eats it feels neither hunger nor weariness. Its name is Bái Jiù [白䓘], and it can redden jade.

Translator’s note

The source writes 穀, “grain,” where the comparison is traditionally understood as 榖, “paper mulberry.” Guō Pú explains “blooding jade” as colouring it. Qīngwò [青雘] is a blue-green mineral or pigment.

040

English

A further 580 li east stands Mount Yúgǎo [禺槀], with many and Dà Shé.

041

English

A further 580 li east stands Mount Nányú [南禺]. Above are plentiful metals and jade, below much water. There is a cavern whose water comes out and goes back in; it flows out in summer and is shut in winter. The Zuǒ [佐] River rises here and flows southeast into the sea. There are Fèng Huáng [鳳皇] and Yuān Chú [鵷鶵].

Translator’s note

Guō Pú places Yuān Chú [鵷鶵] among birds of the same mythic kind as Fèng Huáng [鳳皇]; no modern bird species is implied.

042

English

The third southern range, from Mount Tiānyú [天虞] to Mount Nányú [南禺], comprises fourteen mountains and extends 6,530 li. Its gods all have dragon bodies and human faces. At each shrine a white dog is offered in prayer, and rice serves as the sacrificial grain.

043

English

The foregoing record of the southern mountains comprises forty mountains, great and small, extending 16,380 li.